International Business Essay

1. Summarize the globalization debate. What are the major interest groups in the world economy? How are they affected by different elements of globalization? 2. Who benefits and who loses from a shift in jobs to low-wage economies? Consider this question from the perspective of consumers, labour, technological change, firms, nation-states. Are the net benefits likely to be positive? 3. Identify and evaluate the sources of conflict between pressures on companies to operate globally and the desire of governments to regulate companies and activities within their borders. 4. Account for the existence of counter trade in the world economy and explore the view that its influence will continue as a solution to the problem developing countries face when attempting to export to western markets? 5. Analyze the likely impact on domestic markets of import restrictions via tariffs and quotas respectively. Discuss the dynamic side effects that can arise from import protection. 6. In the light of the strategic significance of price discrimination between cross-border markets to firms, evaluate the merits of anti-dumping measures. 7. Outline the static and dynamic effects of a customs union and explain why regional integration blocs composed of small economies are unlikely to be economically beneficial. 8. Evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of the joint venture over licensing as a foreign market entry mode. Describe scenarios when licensing might be the preferable one of the two entry modes. 9. International franchising is often regarded as a low-risk foreign market entry strategy. Does this view fully reflect the attraction of international franchising as a market entry mode? 10. Under what circumstances would a BOT system make sense as an international marketing strategy?

African American Literature Essay

African American writing is outstandingly interesting, and very informative. All African American writers observe cultural dealing in related and diverse understandings. The three stories that I decided to talk about in this task is â€Å"To my old Master† by Jourdon Anderson, â€Å"My White Folks Treated us Good† by Marriah Hines, and â€Å"If we must die† by Claude McKay. In these stories they observed prejudice, discrimination, and inclusive behaviors throughout the years. The writers open the reader’s eyes to things that were going on in each writer’s life. We will see that each writer was going through the same thing being an African American in America. â€Å"My White Folks treated us good† by Marriah Hines (p. 32). She talked about how her master took care of them by nourishing, the way he dressed them and how he did not hold them back from them developing. The women were right when she said it was exploitation of former slaves. She specified â€Å"Some unfortunate individuals practically have nothing to eat. Why, the way their owners treated them was disgraceful treated them like felines and canines† (Hines, p.32). Hines made remarks about how her master did not permit them to work on Sundays because it was a day for rest. Hines made it clear how nice it was to work for the master that she worked for. She was treated with respect she was not beaten, raped or injured by her master. She told the readers the different between her master and other masters, how others so him as an African American lover. Her master was a religious person went to church and always encourage the slaves to go to church also but did not care if they did not. Even when the slaves were set free the slaves wanted to stay. â€Å"Most of us stayed right there and raised our own crops. † (p. 34). She concluded the way she was able to survive was because of her master. When the slaves became free Hines master gave them cows and mules in order to be successful running their own farms. She was free but she remained loyal to her master and his family until he died and the family moved away. In the story â€Å"To my old Master† by Jourdon Anderson, this is a letter in return t previous correspondence f his old master. The master want Anderson and his family to come back and work for him, is this master being weak, because the slaves did all the work nad things not getting done. The reader can see how the master mistreats the slaves. Anderson states, â€Å"Although you shot at me twice before I left you, I did not want to hear of your being hurt, and I am glad you still living†. (p. 15). Anderson continues to have a discussion on how he and his family are doing well after slavery how their new life is just that new. He tells the master how his kids are getting an education, and how well he is doing making money. One of things that Anderson was afraid of if he went back to work for the old master and that was would he be treated like the last time. The reader knows that Anderson wife Mandy is against going back because she does not believe that things will not change. I think Anderson did not feel commutable going back either because of what he said â€Å"We have concluded to test your sincerity by asking you to send us our wages for the time we served you† (p. 16). How Anderson seen it this was a step toward healing the broken working relationship between him and his master. What Anderson wanted was to be paid back for all the work that he put in. He served his master for 32 years and his wife served for 20 years. Anderson continues to discuss how the master mistreated women and how he was afraid of bring his daughter back in to that environment. Anderson stated â€Å"I would stay here and starve and die, if it comes to that then to have my girl bought to shame by violence and wickedness of their master†. (p. 16). Anderson was harboring about going back but I think he knew he could not go back to his old master. By doing that it was a step back and not a move forward. â€Å"If we must die† this poem is by Claude McKay. This was a poem about how African Americans people were horribly treated by White Americans. This poem discuss about how African Americans stood up for themselves, if it took physical or even if it cost their life. McKay stated â€Å"though far be more numerous than let us show us courageous. Like men we’ll face the murderous, cowardly pack, pressed to the wall, dying but fighting back† (p. 378). This statement is a strong statement. The author was trying to tell the African American men that even when things don’t look good and it don’t look like a way out just keep fighting. In the poem â€Å"If we must die† McKay states â€Å"If we must die, let it not be like a hog, hunted and penned in an inglorious spot† (p. 378). Even today we as African Americans still find ourselves fighting to be part of America. The problems that ascend with African Americans are being used just because of the color of our skins. The event with Trayvon Martin the young 17 year old boy shot down because of the way he dressed and the way the young man looked. To this day we are still dealing with racism and it seems like America will always have to deal with racism. Civilization still has not come as far as they would like to have faith in. America has taken its chances to change and to make a harmony with every American. As we have read these stories from three different writers they all have something in common and that was that they were dealing with the same problem. All three writers was part of that culture that was oppressed and left to be defeated. But as one of the writers said when things are bad and we keep getting beat up just keep fighting and we will progress through.

Developing Personal Management Skills Assignment

Developing Personal Management Skills - Assignment Example Like any other business, organizations have little or no interest on good management and emphasize on exciting and glamorous work of leadership. Nevertheless, managers are subjects for good performance. Generally, managers should translate their leadership skills to high productivity and good governance. Whereas leaders bring forth vision, motivation and challenge, all these things are in vain if there is no effective implementation as a result of good management. Essentially, a good manager should be equipped with vast skills, ranging from planning, communication, and delegation to motivation. Since there are several management skills required for proper management, it is very tricky to build skills in areas you are not comfortable. Leaders have different management skills, and their applications vary (Mcgrath, 2009). However, for good results and long-term success, it is worth analyzing your personal managerial skills, knowing your strengths and weaknesses and capitalizing on your best management skills. As if this is not enough, pose a challenge to your to improve in your weakest points. This helps you to identify your strong and weak areas, take advantage of past and manage the latter (Hannaway & Gabriel , 2005). Communication is a very crucial tool in the management. In any organization, you have to communicate with your workmates, seniors, juniors and the stakeholders. This tool has given me confidence in place of work and build a lot of trusts. As long as I know what am talking about, worries have no place. It implies that as I communicate with staff, I should have substance so that they can listen to me. Likewise, as they pass information, they should have a clear conscience of what they want to pass across. Communication is a very critical skill for managers. For a number of years, employe es in one of the organizations, I once worked went for a strike because of reshuffling their supervisors. Essentially, there was a  need to make changes, but most of them were unwilling. When I joined as one of the managers, the tension was all over. I took some time to study the organizational structure and the entire set up, and I realized there was need indeed to reshuffle.  

Micro and macroeconomics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Micro and macroeconomics - Essay Example There are numerous concepts, that specifically comes under the ambit of economics and the name of cost efficiency is one of them, in fact quite important as well. There are number of concepts that define about cost efficiency in total and putting the first thing on the first step is one of the most integral ones. There are certain environmental laws that prohibits the EPA to not to put the same against the cost, but there are number of companies which are doing the same. Organizations always strive and thrive hard for economic prosperity and there are number of things on which the entire productivity of an entity depends upon (WIERENGA). Theoretically, an organization is places which have been arose and surrounds with number of different departments in total. Considering the cost to develop and initiate through a specific period is prohibited in different law making functions. This thing could in regular touch with the cost of the company as a whole. This is basically a sort of waste for the companies to put things first as compared to other things. It is basically a waste of resources and it should be prohibited. Self Test Exercise Ans-1) Current Level of Enforcement Activity is $ 7.50 Marginal Cost per Gallon is $ 5.50 The current level of enforcement activity is marginally higher than that of the cost of per Gallon, representing an increase of $ 2. If the number s are correct, then the Coast Guard should be increased in order to meet with the current level of Enforcement Activity (EA), otherwise the resources would get wasted. Cost per gallon in this particular scenario should be increased accordingly in order to do the things all along. The main reason to analyze is to make the cost according to the current EA in total. Ans-2) Risk Reducing Program = $ 100,000 to $72 billion a) Risk is the name of uncertainty and it is extremely important for the companies to reduce the level of risk from their production. Statistics is one of the most important fields whic h has its importance and recognition in number of things. The field of statistics has been found among number of things in total and it is found in forecasting as well. Organizations have to consider number of things in order to bring economic propensity to the consumption. If the values have been considered as correct, then the programs should be continue for a long span of time, because it relates to the economic efficiency of the organization as a whole. b) Government could play a vital role to stabilize the economy or to stabilize a certain method or path of a country or an organization as a whole. Government could play an important role to equalize the marginal cost life saved across all the live saving programs. In this section it is analyzed that Government could also play an important role in this analysis as well and cost per save life will certainly enhance with the same activity. Risk could also be minimized accordingly with the help of this section. 3.a) Risk reduction i s an important activity which should be there for a organization as a whole. Premature risk reduction should be decrease accordingly. = 1/100,000 = 10/1000, 000 If the population is 4 million then the statistics could be like this, = 40/4,000,000 = 0.001% The proportion of the same is quite low as it relates to the risk reduction activity. The cost associated with the same is = 50* 4,000,000 = 2, 000, 000, 00 3.b) 6/100,000 To 2/100,000 The maximum that could be found from the same is 8/1000,000 Chapter-5 Discussion Question-1 The term environmental sustainability comprise of decision power and the implementation of such measures that plays an

Youth Culture and Moral Panic Portfolio Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Youth Culture and Moral Panic Portfolio - Essay Example This has left the public ill-prepared to consider the vital greater changes that affect identities across different ages. In his work, â€Å"Folk Devils and Moral Panics,† Stanley Cohen first introduced the term â€Å"moral panic† to refer to the idea as an irregular episode, which when it happens, subjects the society to spells of worry about the principles and values which it upholds that may be a threat. He described its features as â€Å"a situation, group, person, or episode who are viewed as a threat to societal interests and values† (Cohen, 1980). The â€Å"amplifications† that are portrayed by the media serve to appeal to the public to concur with pre-existing opinions on the course of action to be carried out. These opinions are frequently found among members of the â€Å"moral barricade† like the editors, bishops, and politicians. Combined with the views of the â€Å"experts† who are driven to offer their diagnosis, they come to a consensus on how to cope with the situation and the problem either deteriorates or disappears. Even though Cohen in his findings state that the media often exaggerated the occurrences and consequently inciting the panic to be assimilated by the police, some of these panics cause more serious consequences in the society. It is significant to note that â€Å"moral panics† are not just developed by the newspapers, but on many occasions they are debated in the papers. For example, the Guardian in 1993 stated, â€Å"The moral panic and the Facts†, an article that discussed a Conservative Party Conference on welfare expenses turned to be a moral panic on the side of single mothers. The single women thought they were being blamed for unruly youth. Ironically, the media criticized this conference for concentrating on myths which had been dealt with some time back in a Cabinet briefing paper, yet they themselves were accused of partaking in weird hunts.   

Epidemiologic Analysis and Preventable Disease Essay

Epidemiologic Analysis and Preventable Disease - Essay Example One of such disease is heart disease. Heart disease is already an epidemic and threatens to become pandemic if not proactively prevented. It is not a communicable disease, but yet it is one which threatens a huge portion of the population. The purpose of this discussion is to approach the issue of heart disease from an epidemiological standpoint in order to analyze how data relating to the topic may be used in a healthcare setting with regards to decision making concerning limited healthcare resources. When saying that heart diseases is not communicable, it is meant that it is not like a bacterial or viral infection which is transferred from host to host or in an airborne manner. It is however, a disease which is more likely to occur in those who have a genetic predisposition for it. This does not necessarily mean that an individual with a family history of heart disease which actually get it. In fact, preventing heart disease is most important among those who have a family history of it. Some individuals may have more than one family member who has suffered form CHD, which elevates that individual’s CDH risk factor along with the ages of onset within the person’s family. By looking at a few different factors regarding patient history and lifestyle, physicians may establish a personal score for that individual which represents their likelihood of contracting CHD. The benefit that we have over CHD is that it is manageable and predictable (Supino et al, 2002, p.130). Heart disease can be prevented by following the guidelines of a healthy lifestyle which are balanced between diet and exercise as well as avoiding alcohol and tobacco. The chances of acquiring heart disease, are associated with overeating or high fat, high cholesterol diets. Those who live a sedentary lifestyle are also at a higher risk for heart disease. Stress or the improper handling of stress is also linked to heart disease. Certainly, lowering

Graphic aid Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Graphic aid - Assignment Example On the other hand, Apple’s share price has seen a more dramatic increase in terms of absolute amounts, rising sharply from the low of about US 400 dollars to peak highs of US 700 dollars (Yahoo! Finance, 2012; Google Finance, 2012). On the other hand, focusing on the most recent performance of the stocks, it is clear that while Samsung’s share price has plateaud somewhat with the share price stabilizing around 1.3 million Korean wons, the share of Apple from the most recent poll has seen a kind of dramatic drop. In the plot, one can see that from the high of US 700 dollars, the most recent share prices are below US 600 dollars. The prognosis for Apple moving forward is a bit shaky, and the recent drop in the stock price may be an indication that the investing public is not so enamored with the prospects of the company in 2013 and onwards, given the more recent missteps made by the company relating to core technologies for its smart phone, as well as missteps relating to the way it has priced its new tablet offerings as well. In contrast, Samsung’s price reflects some stability (Lappin, 2012; Yahoo! Finance, 2012; Google Finance, 2012). The images tell a story, from the point of view of Apple, about how Samsung smart phone designs have evolved over time, and with the iPhone introduction as the mark point for comparing how Samsung designs changed with that milestone. This graphic has been used by Apple’s lawyers before the court to make their case with regard to their claim that Samsung basically copied the smart phone designs of Apple and iPhone. Prior to the introduction of the iPhone in 2007, the graphic shows that Samsung phone designs were largely rounded at the bottom, many with keypads, and had small screens. There were also navigation buttons at the center, and in all the phones reflected older design paradigms for

Complete a Case Analysis of Kraft Foods Inc Assignment

Complete a Case Analysis of Kraft Foods Inc - Assignment Example The alternative strategies were given out based on the analysis that was noted in the company analysis. Existing Mission, Objectives, and Strategies Located in the UK, Kraft Food Company, the mission statement of the company is based on a rational strategic plan to start executing it. Established in 1903, the company is a manufacturing conglomerate located in Illinois, a suburb in Chicago, USA and specializes in grocery. A manufacturing firm, the company grocery collection has a big lineation to direct food items such as convenience foods, confectionery, snacks, beverage and cheese. The company operates in more than 170 countries all over the world. The company does not operate on the basis of production of the named food items a lone but specializes in marketing, innovation, health and wellness as well as health sustainability (Kraft, 2013). The company operations are therefore based on a mission statement that looks to promote a good health in all the company customers and thus goe s ‘Make Today Delicious’. The universality is inculcated in the fact that the company is a multinational. The mission is all about what the company is and the company is about the customers, their health and the general life that they live. The company strategies in view of the mission statement are quite diverse. ... Production is not only a way of market sustenance, the company therefore wishes to create a human resource management strength in which all the market will be willing to work for it. The last laid strategy is that the company wishes to make itself be recognized as a high performance as far as the market is concerned. In view of these strategies, the company came up with some objectives that would see it realize the strategies that it had planned to achieve. The first object that the company wishes to implement is the acceleration of growth of core brands. The second is that the company wishes to extend the awareness of the value of its products in the developing countries. Moreover, the company wishes to increase its value of those brands that are considered as low quality in the market. This will be done at the lowest possible cost in the market. The last objective again is based on human resource and is leveled towards development of the company values through employment of committ ed employees. A new mission statement can be created for the company based on a combination of its existing values as well as inclusion of the strategic objectives more than is covered. It would take close proximity to ‘Making Today and Tomorrow Delicious’. This would mean the company opens up more branches all over the world so that it is able to impact everyone positively. The company will therefore do this through provisions for a well experienced more knowledgeable employment team, cleaner restaurants and at affordable prices. SWOT (TOWS) Analysis of Kraft Food Inc. Multinational companies have very wide market coverage and therefore have the

How to Develop a Plan That Really Works Case Study

How to Develop a Plan That Really Works - Case Study Example Boeing uses four main types of plans: strategic, tactical, operational and contingency plans. Strategic planning is important as it determines the directions and strategic priorities of the corporation. Recent years, Boeing develops its strategic plans in accordance with Federal regulations and bankruptcy laws namely the Federal Acquisition Regulation and Cost Accounting Standards. For Boeing, strategic alternatives may be generated at all levels in the organization's hierarchy. At the organizational level, alternatives are concerned with the form of government, its basic style and policies, and its central service delivery purpose and strategy. At the department level, alternatives deal with the direction the organization should follow for each major service being delivered (Bryson 2004). At the division level, alternatives are concerned with the direction the organization should take in regard to discrete systems, processes, methods, and approaches. As the strategic planning proces s is being contemplated, criteria should be established as to how the plan will be evaluated. Criteria such as reduced cost, improved quality, improved sense of direction, better teamwork, and improved service delivery might be used. Organizations need to be aware of what is happening in their environment that might affect them. In other words, they should continually survey and monitor the outside as well as the inside of the organization (Bradford et al 2000). Strategic planning is influenced by social responsibility issues including ethical concerns and fair competition laws. Special attention is given at competition and advertising, macroenvironment and compliance with international laws. "Global corporate citizenship is one of Boeing's core values, and our communities are among the key stakeholders in the company's business model. Corporate citizenship is as integral to our company as our expertise in flight and technology" (Boeing Home Page 2008). Factors to be considered as part of the macro-environmental scanning process include social factors such as demographics, financial factors such as interest rates, and political factors such as increasing government deregulation, changing federalism and state government's trends, and regulations. Among the factors to be considered as part of the government, an environment is the number and locations of other governments, the degree of federal and state government presence, the typical service s being provided, and the marketing strategies of other competitive local governments. The competitive-environmental scan includes consideration of general competitor profiles (other local governments and private service providers), market segmentation patterns, research and development, and so on (Bryson 2004).

Learning New Research Concepts or Techniques by Writing and Other Research Activities Essay Example for Free

Learning New Research Concepts or Techniques by Writing and Other Research Activities Essay The way to go about determining if certain resources are adequate for college assignments would be through an evaluation process. In chapter five of the course material, it provides the six tests of evidence that helps to conclude if discovered information can be utilized for a paper. The first test is regarding credibility. If a source is credible it should be information based on fact rather than opinion. The next test to examine is if the material is unbiased. Be sure founded information has room for other points of view about the issue so that the presentation of material in your paper is fair and balanced† (Sole, K. (2010). Writing College research papers. Another test to examine would be to verify if the information is relevant and relates to your topic. Next, is the source complete? â€Å"Do not take information out of context and mislead the reader by using only the portion of the information that supports your opinion about a topic† (Sole, K. (2010). Writing College research papers. The logical test is to make sure the information makes sense and is consistent with other known evidence. The final test would be to determine how current the resource is. Confirm the sources you use are as current as possible and have not been replaced by more recent research findings. Check to find the date an article was written or, if it has no date, check the copyright or revision date on the Web page to determine how recently the information was updated (Sole, K. (2010). Writing College research papers. An example of a suitable source would be an article from the Ashford Library, because Ashford Online Library have been archived by professional information management specialists, and Ashford University professional staff have selected specific databases for the library that are the most appropriate for your college courses. In other words, they are university and faculty approved. Sole, K. (2010) Writing College research papers. An unsuitable source would be Wikipedia, but can often be used to lead to other sources of information for an assignment.

Social Work Intervention | Race and Poverty

Social Work Intervention | Race and Poverty CHAPTER FOUR Evidence suggests that contemporary social work practice is faced with the dilemma of how to direct its efforts primarily to the poor and needy in the UK and at the same time to engage in social welfare policy to help promote social change. According to Okitikpi and Aymers (2003) social work professionals working with African refugees are often frustrated and poorly resourced to manage families who suffer from difficult lifestyle experiences due to poverty and social exclusions. Also Okitikpi and Aymer (2003) are of the view that problems of poverty and working in partnership with African families alleged of child abuse or maltreatment would be better and easier managed should social workers engage in open direct interventions. Bernard Gupta (2008) highlights the difficulties social workers face when assessing and making interventions regarding African children and their families whose cultures differ from the majority white population in the UK. Therefore the argument that the miss ion of social work is to promote social change and alleviate poverty in society by engaging with social welfare policy rather than interventions at family levels is currently the pivot of strong debate. The term social work intervention as defined by IFSW: Usually describes work undertaken with individuals, families, groups and communities. In this context the term is to cover the use of social work knowledge and skills when using it within a social care organisation to facilitate the provision of services and practice consistent with the Codes of Practice and with standards of service and practice, and to promote social inclusion and life opportunities of people using the services IFSW (2000). Types of Social Work Intervention According to Elde-Woodward (2002), there are three fundamental methods or stages of intervention. The first method of intervention, Elde-Woodward describes as macro social work intervention which involves directing social work practice to society or communities as a whole. This type of social work practice includes policy forming and advocacy on a national or international scale. The second method of intervention is mezzo social work practice, which involves working with agencies, small organizations, and other small groups directly or indirectly related to social work practice to make policies or developing programs for a particular community. The third method of intervention is the Micro social work practice which involves offering direct service to individuals and families. Hartnett et al (2005) research on the role perceptions of social workers and social work students shows that only very few actually engage in policy-practice that focus on social policy formulation and advocacy . There are a wide variety of activities that falls under the category of social work practice and social work professionals works in many different settings of employment. Basically social workers engage in clinical practice, find themselves working with individuals or families. However, social workers who serve in community practice are engage with the mezzo or macro stages of social work. Spratt et al (2004) findings shows that social work intervention with individuals or families is the most popular and effective method of intervention that bring about social change in individual lives. Social work intervention aims to help children or families to identify, and to establish appropriate relationships with social workers that will enhance their livelihood. The purpose of the intervention is diverse and ranges from increasing life skills or changing behaviour to increase life options and to cope with changing life situations and transitions (Smale, Tuson and Statham, 2000). Identifying and acknowledging child abuse Many schools of thought argue that social workers could assist families living in poverty to identify issues of child abuse by showing empathy, establishing working relationships and engaging in appropriate interventions. In any of the situations there are a number of factors making African families living in poverty to be alleged of maltreating or abusing their children. Some of these factors are poor parenting practices, lack of knowledge about the laws pertaining in the country of residence and ethno-centric discrimination and racism (Elder-Woodward, 2002). Child abuse cases referred by other agencies for the attention of local authority social services may result in interventions that usually draw children into child protection system. Such interventions do not always consider the financial and social situations such parents find themselves, but used by social work professionals in manner to comply with government legislation and the responsibility of protecting or safeguarding c hildren. For instance, parents living on meagre income hardly could sustain the family financial commitments, or such parents may not consider the legal implications of living children alone in the house for work, as often such children are seen wandering the streets or become school dropouts due to poor parental care and support. Social workers distinctive contribution for families living in extreme poverty and experiencing social exclusion is o employ empathy, communication and relationship skills to help identify and to acknowledge issues of child abuse (Spratt et al 2004). Intervention within the social work process is not a static, snapshot or a holistic process whereby social workers arrives at definitive answer to protect vulnerable children from further harm. However, the fundamental interpersonal skills require of social workers is the key to identifying the possible causes of child abuse or maltreatment in a family setting, through the building of appropriate relationship with the families and collaborating with other interested agencies (Lloyd and Taylor, 1990). Most often than not social workers take ethnocentric and prejudice approach at the initial contact with African families accused of child abuse and consequently arrive at a judgemental decision. With the right relationship with African families involve in child abuse cases social work professionals are positive to understand the needs of such families and what type of intervention is appropriate to help address their problems. Intervention skills used by social workers fits most easily i nto the traditional frameworks in which social work is usually taught to qualifying students, but less easily recognized as intervention by most social workers once in practice. Arguably, the core skills of intervention have not been grasped in its entity practising social workers and hence are not consciously transferred across situations where is most needed. Intervening child abuse Social work involves intervening children and familys situation and problems through appraisal of what information is available and what information is gathered from the family after initially assessing the familys financial and social status, with collaboration with other organisations and professionals working with the family. Many authors argue that social worker should lead families alleged of child abuse through the intervention process, highlighting and explaining the importance of working together to agree on the most appropriate intervention needed to bring social change. Furthermore, social workers use a range of knowledge, models and frameworks to decide what method of intervention is needed to achieve the desired result. To ensure that collated information from all quarters leads to informed intervention, social workers need to establish working relationships of trust with African families and other professionals. They must be able to understand the socio-economic status a nd parenting practices of African families, through their own knowledge and skill, or by drawing on that of others. Social workers recognition and understanding of parents behavioural patterns, complicated with poverty, understanding of diverse cultures and building of good working relationships are vital to successful interventions. There is evidence in the literature to suggest that social workers and other related professionals have difficulty fostering good working relationship with black African families alleged of child abuse cases as such families have no trust in the child protection system. Therefore social workers need to develop the requisite skills and behaviours to understand the problems of African families living under the poverty line, and who may have little or no knowledge of the child protection system in the UK. In recognition of the difficulties inherent in deploying effective interventions the Department of Health introduced the Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families ( DH 2000). Macdonald (2002) notes the pitfalls that arise when conducting assessments leading to social work intervention. It is not just simple to follow a framework setting out the areas to be investigated, as social workers need to exercise professional judgement and be alert to unconscious bias which may creep into the work, distorting assessments and the degree of interventions. Social Work Intervention and environmental influences Bernard Gupta (2008) literature review on black African children and child protection system emphasize the adverse effects of poverty and social exclusion on parenting capacity and childrens development, which have been identified as a major factor in most families involved in care proceedings (Brophy et al, 2003). African families are proportionally more likely to live in poverty than majority whites in Britain as many undertake low-income paid jobs (Kyambi, 2005), have their rights to support services withdrawn under section 17 of the 1989 Children Act, (Kholi, 2006) and income, employment opportunities and access to support services are determined by their immigration and asylum status (Bernard Gupta, 2008). The UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, recognises the need to protect children who experience a deprived childhood due to families living in poverty, and requires governments to ensure all children have an adequate standard of living as a basic right. The UN recognizes that deprivation during childhood undermines the fundamental rights which children, as well as adults, should enjoy, including access to key services such as health, education and social services (Monteith McLaughlin, 2005). Available evidence shows that poverty and social deprivation during childhood has adverse effects on children developments and limits their capacity to reach full potential and will perpetuate social inequalities across generations within populations. The Labour government pledge to reducing poverty in the country was a step forward to achieve social change among families, but did not explicitly define the target groups that are mainly living in extreme poverty. The Labour governments anti poverty strategy involves policies to increase the incomes of poor families by improving child-related benefits and tax credits and the introduction of a national minimum wage. The governments Sure Start initiative and the National Childcare Strategy in the UK provide affordable childcare provision for working parents. Moreover, the publication of the document Every Child Matters set outs the government approach to the wellbeing of children and young people (McLaughlin Monteith 2005). The sure start initiative provides a lot of support to parents struggling to care for their children, but the limited number of branches across the country only seems to assist the majority white families. Bradshaw (2001) and Stewart Hill (2005) argue that the go vernments child poverty reduction strategies may be easier to achieve in short-term basis but not achieving much in long term. The main official working document for many British child protection social workers is the Department of Health (DoH), 1988 document, Protecting Children: A Guide for Social Workers undertaking a Comprehensive Assessment, but has its limitations when working with black African families (Chands, 1999). It is arguable to say that taking children into public care because their parents are not capable of providing adequate care may be due to the withdrawal of all support services in accordance with section 9 of the 2004 Asylum an Immigration Act (Kelly Meldgaard, 2005). Evidence shows that basic physical care that families are expected to provide for children becomes limited by inadequate housing, unemployment, poverty, and social exclusion particularly with black African families living in poverty. It is argued that any assessment process that reflects the inadequate provision of care as the failure of black people and as indicator of child abuse rather than the effects of racial inequality is in itself racist. Furthermore, as black African families are disadvantaged in many circumstances, it is arguable that they will face higher levels of risk from the harmful effects of inappropriate social work intervention and misjudgement (Chands, 1999). Social Work Intervention and parental behaviours The history of over-representation of black children in the child protection system, according to Chand (1999) dates back to the 1960s. Research shows that black children are quick to enter into the child protection system than their white counterparts, for reasons such as parenting behaviours, culture and social and economic problems. Many research work relating to the differences in child-rearing and poverty in the UK show that black African families are often at risk of being stereotyped as not capable of parenting children in the most appropriate way. Therefore, social workers have a responsibility to understand issues framing the experiences of African children at risk of significant harm, ad not to create the general impression that all African families are not capable. According to Chand (1999) despite the very obviousness of the diversity of childhoods, we live and work in a society which tends to assume that there is just one kind of childhood that is normal and ordinary (Rogers, 1989, p. 97). The issues of punishment, parental behaviour and discipline, complicated with poverty are controversial concepts among black African families living in the UK, which often draw them into the arena of child protection system. According to Bernard Gupta (2008), the literature that exists focuses on the African families where their parenting is deemed to be below the threshold of what is considered proper. This dysfunction within African families can risk reproducing stereotypes of this group as deficient, thus fostering a pathological viewpoint of African family relationship. It is widely accepted that black African family relationships with white social workers working with them, is always strained with mistrust and non-acceptance. Available research shows that (Chands, 1999), different child-rearing practices, as a result of socio-economic status permeates different cultures and social workers working with families of different cultural values and beliefs may experience difficulty i n understanding what parental behaviours are acceptable and not acceptable. Thus, to distinguish whether a particular child-rearing practice is deviant to societal norm, social workers will always have to dwell on the knowledge acquired from both formal and informal training, experiences and their moral judgements, to employ the most appropriate intervention process applicable to the family. Bernard Gupta (2008) claims that African family relationships, like those of many minority ethnic groups, are often constructed differently from the conventional nuclear family model that exist in the majority culture in contemporary Britain. Cultural values and more importantly poverty influence the lives of many black African children and their families involved in the child protection system (Thorburn et al, 2005). In order for social workers to establish a good working relationship when working with black African families and children living in poverty, Chands (1999) argues that it is param ount for social workers to have a sound knowledge and understanding of what is acceptable and unacceptable parental behaviours within the cultural background of the families. If not, social workers may intervene in alleged child abuse cases inappropriately. There are a few data on the impact of poverty and cultural values in influencing expectations, motivations, roles and approaches to parenting and perceiving what constitutes harmful behaviours (Barn et al., 2006). It is debatable to define in specific terms how children should be discipline from the view points of parents and professionals and what type and degree of punishments are deem appropriate for a misbehaving child. Barn et al (2006) findings show that African families do not punish their children any different from the majority white families and that there is no evidence of using more severe physical punishment (Thorburn et al., 2005). However, research shows that working-class white families presumably employ more smacking, which is a form of physical punishment, in an attempt to manage children behaviours and corporal punishment is still practise in schools outside the state sector, which are mainly occupied by middle-class children. Yet in general, as the vast majority o f African parents use physical punishment as a form of discipline to manage their children behaviours, they are inevitably alleged of abusing their children (Chands, 1999). These are related to their cultural background, their socio-economic status, and their own personalities (Phillips Dutt 2000). For example, Ellis (2006) maintained that in African culture there is little fondling and kissing of infants and any kind of caressing stops when the child is toddling. Black Africans express their affection and love in a different way, through good physical attention, such as bathing, skin-care and hair-care (Chands, 1999). This illustrates the necessity to understand different cultures in order to guard against misinterpretations of parenting behaviour, and to ask why a black African parent may not be showing any obvious signs of affection towards their child. Moreover, the unrealistic expectation by white social workers should be understandably measured in the light of the parents anx iety about their childrens future considering the poverty levels of many black African children living the United Kingdom (Beranard Gupta 2006). With regard to responsibility and independence, many research shows that most white social workers seem to adopt euro-centric approach when working with black African children and their families (Chands, 1999). In effect black African children are either not protected because they are seen to be able to cope with situations not deemed appropriate for white children, or where black African children are not taking on similar responsibilities to their white counterparts they are deemed to be at risk of abuse or deprivation (Chands, 1999). For instance, the issue of older siblings caring for younger ones in the case with many black African families may be decisive in the workers assessment of risk of significant harm to the child. According to Chands (1999) there is the need to question why this should be when a high level of both responsibility and independence by the older sibling can be clearly demonstrated. It must be emphasized therefore that although child abuse occurs in all races and cultures, workers must guard against viewing suspected abuse through the norms and values of their own background. A further point is that black African families unwillingness or resistance to the assessment and intervention process employ by social workers working on alleged child abuse cases should not be seen as evidence of guilt, as the system may be new to them or a good working relationship is not there. Finally, Chands (1999) explains that in order to make the intervention process fairer for all black African families, it is necessary for majority white workers and institutions to understand that most black African parents may be less aware of child protection procedures, may be living in poverty, and their experience in the UK make them more susceptible to the child protection system. Some researchers have identified the importance of understanding how poverty complicate different cultural values, which in many cases explains the motivation behind parental actions when managing unacceptable behaviours of their children (Barn et al, 2006) and in their research on normative parenting there is no significant differences between ethnic groups with regard to physical punishment of children (Bernard Gupta, 2008). CHAPTER FIVE IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE There is some evidence in the literature to suggest that social workers and other professionals struggle to manage the complex needs and social circumstances of many African families (Bernard Gupta, 2008). According to Hayes Spratt (2008), social workers are more engage with child protection work, but not in way that is readily understood by those who legislate, set policy and measure performance. Social workers may lack the necessary tools to adequately differentiate borderline cases from high-risk cases, couple with poor collaboration with other professionals, classifying certain parenting practices as politically and ethically unacceptable and their own personal cultural values, they turn to route all borderline child abuse cases through the child protection processes. It might seem paradoxical that in recent years social workers, who are seen as the force for conformity, are frequently criticized for acting more in the interests of society than in the interests of service users . However, when social workers relate more with families than just aiming to achieve governments target, they build good working relationships with those they serve and help liberate them from oppression, poverty and social deprivation. Thus, social workers engaging more with methods of intervention which liberate children and their families from poverty, deprivation and social exclusion are really working to the principles and ethics of social work practice as defined by IFSW in contemporary Britain. Social work professionals almost always draw exclusively on sociology and political science knowledge base, believing that individuals can be wholly human only within the context of a benign environment and a just social order. Evidence shows that changing the social system of African families who suffer oppression through poverty and social exclusion by empowering them, not only means liberating them from social injustice, but also promoting family dignity and happiness. According to Bernard Gupta (2008) the poverty and social circumstances experience by many African families pose challenges for parents and children, as well as social work professionals working to safeguard and promote children welfare. Therefore, it is the requirement of the social workers to consider African families poverty and social circumstances before deciding on what intervention process will most help change their life. Recent governments efforts to change the objective social work from perhaps overemphasi zes on child protection agenda to a more preventative approach in alleged child abuse cases, have not entirely favoured African families living in poverty who are accuse of being deficient in their child-rearing behaviours. Social workers invariably experience the dilemma of choosing between directing efforts to child welfare process or child protection process and not see children suffer further abuse under the context of poverty. The broader development of the new theoretical perspectives based on systems theory will assist social work professionals working with children and African families to consider a more specific view of their roles and to help develop effective relationships with African families with the view of understanding their individual, emotional as well as social needs. A lack of good relationship with African families will adversely impact on social workers ability to understand their parenting behaviours so as to employ the appropriate method of intervention (Bernard Gupta, 2008). There are four main reasons for the need for a new perspective. Policy changes resulting in a change in method of intervention The policy environment to which social work practice relates continues to change to bring about the necessary social change. According to Platt (2006) persistent demands on social workers from the government and including inadequate staff, the bureaucracy and central government targets, and policies on refugees and asylum seekers, creates difficulty for social work to offer a wide range of family support services. Research shows that many African families may benefit more when they are routed away from child protection system towards child welfare services (Hayes Spratt, 2008). However, the governments response to Lord Lamings Report in Every Child Matters following the death of Victoria Climbie, has strengthen child protection and increase the number of cases routed through child welfare processes. Therefore it is important for social workers to subject parenting practices influenced by poverty to thorough scrutiny during assessment process to help achieve better outcomes for Afric an children. Poverty can create forms of disempowerment for children when it is used to justify parental behaviours and practices that violate their right (Bernard Gupta, 2008). Further to this point, social workers sometimes face resistance when assessing parenting problems, and more importantly their judgements about what should be consider as significant harm, when parents use poverty as a yardstick for their behaviours. Chand (1999) argue that due to the large number of cases of child abuse and child protection issues among black African children and families, social workers should take the initiative and be proactive by liaising with the families they serve, informing them about where they draw their boundaries. Changes in the knowledge and skill base As with any profession there are both new approaches and new understandings about the effectiveness of specific interventions. Investment in research and the dissemination of knowledge and skills in health remains vast greater than in social care. But the strengthening of these resources in social work and social care should result in more knowledge based practice and management in the medium and long term. The case for recognising different sources of knowledge has been made and the multiplicity of information collected in various departments need to include that produced through the experience and expertise of people using the services and front line workers as well as from research. According to Chand (1999) training either formally or informally, is important for social workers working with black African families with child-rearing issues since it can raise the issue of how black African families meet their children needs differently. The training should be integrated into the so cial work training syllabus in higher education and this would broaden the understanding of students which may dispel some of the myths around black African families and their child-rearing practices and alleviate the potential of pathologizing them in child care practices (Chand, 1999). Technological and structural changes Recent technological changes, identification of gaps in knowledge and skills new areas of working are emerging which is resulting in the provision of services falling behind service demands. For instance global movements have necessitated the need for social workers to work with African children and families migrating to the UK with existing poor backgrounds, to work with asylum seekers or refugees escaping from own countries in political turmoil or at war (Newburn, 1993). New technologies and the growing familiarity of the public in using social welfare services opens up new forms of interventions particularly to assist African families living poverty in the UK. In areas where there is rapid development or new issues with social work practice there is the necessity in advance of theory. Strategies in these circumstances may include transferring existing knowledge and skills to the new area, drawing on any international experience and expertise, networking to share and learn from exp erience and research on needs and effective responses. Initially these may need to be done separately to structure a different perspective before it is possible to bring experience and learning together in new ways. Multi organisational or Partnership Intervention For intervention to meet the required target, it all depends on proper initial assessment, but many of the assessment tools that are employ such as DoH (2000) Framework for the Assessment of children in need and their families may disadvantage black African families due to the eurocentric approach of social workers. Research shows that partnership is needed to embrace both good working relationships and appropriate intervention process (Chand, 1999). Against this background, children in need may be given preventative supports and will prevent vulnerable children from abuse or maltreatment. Therefore greater attention should be given to support professional social work practice, and safeguarding the value base, the relationship and the process of good practice, expertise of social workers and related professions. Implications and issues for considerations Recent studies on African families and the child protection system show that these families are disproportionately represented at different levels in the child care system. The existing intervention tools for social work practice are grounded within ethnocentric epistemologies and, as the foundation for social work theory and practice, are not well equipped for the task of nurturing and developing African families and their children. This is evident, for example, in the sustained over-representation of black children in the care system and in the lack of supportive social work services designed to meet their needs. It is therefore important for the development of new theoretical perspectives based on systems theory to help social workers who work with African children and families. This will enable social workers to take a broader view of their role and to develop a vivid perception of parenting behaviours and practices of these families which are complicated with poverty so that a m ore appropriate method of intervention are employed in their judgement. The extreme poverty experience by many African families pose challenges for social workers working to safeguard and promote childrens welfare (Bernard and Gupta, 2008). The Framework for the Assessment of Children in Need and their Families (Department of Health, 2000) based on the ecological approach places a requirement on social workers to also consider the low income status of parents when intervening cases of child abuse. These approaches provide an essential framework for work with African children and families, both in terms of the context of their lives and the process of the work being undertaken. In order to safeguard and promote the welfare of West African children, a starting point must be an acknowledgement of sources of maltreatment of children in the context of poverty (Bernard and Gupta, 2006). The dissertation highlights the importance of social workers considering the poverty situations of many African families who have immigrated to the United Kingdom, particularly those who have recently arrived into the country. Most of the African families may be asylum seekers or refugees with insecure social status and may have very limited understanding of the child protection or welfare state system in the UK (Bernard Gupta, 2008). Therefore only throug