Bullying Is A Worldwide Problem - 894 Words

Bullying is a worldwide problem that has been going on for years whether in schools or online. Based off a power point by Laura Rizzardini, bullying is when someone â€Å"purposely causes harm†¦includes social exclusion, and the bully has more power than the victim.† There could many different logics to why bullies bully. Some reasons may include: it is a way to get attention, fit in with a certain group of people, or even that is the way they are treated at home so they do not know that it is not acceptable to do in society, also, because of power. I agree with the textbook, The Practical Skeptic, by Lisa J. McIntyre, it states, â€Å"Spencer viewed social competition as a kind of purifying process in which the weak were weeded out† (23). This relates to people who bully because just like Spencer they are trying to weed people they feel unthreatening or superior over, and that consist of the victims of the bullies. All three of the theoretical perspective — conflict, functionalism, and symbolic interactionism—could be used to analyze bullying. But the best way to look at bullying with a sociological imagination is through the symbolic interactionist perspective; which based off of people’s perceptions of reality. Symbolic interactionism, based on a power point lecture given by Laura Rizzardini, she explained the theoretical perspective, of symbolic interactionism. She also discussed the different assumptions that can be broken down into three sub-groups. One, â€Å"peoples actions dependsShow MoreRelatedBullying Essay739 Words   |  3 PagesBullying mentally and physically affects peoples well being. This abuse occurs not only in schools around us, but also worldwide. Bullying is a problem, and people need to figure out ways to solve it. There are a lot of different types of bullying: such as, cyber, verbal, social, and physical. Every year nearly 48% of students are bullied. Bullying itself cannot be resolved, but there are ways to help prevent it from happening. High School bullying is very common, and causes a lot of conflictsRead MoreBullying . In Life There Is No Perfect Picture For A Non-Violent1379 Words   |  6 Pages Bullying In life there is no perfect picture for a non-violent world, but then we turn to school, work forces and sadly enough, we as a community reach the point of having to find ways to prevent bullying. Bullying as we see is as a whole can create a foundation that certain people don’t want to particularly be involved with, such as school environments, workforces or even a neighborhood. This is a worldwide incident that is going on and people are getting hurt emotionally, physically and evenRead MoreThe Act Of Bullying Prevention Center Essay1102 Words   |  5 Pageswere the victims of this bullying. Also 13% of students have often been called insults based on their race, ethnicity, religion, gender, sexual orientation, and disability (National Bullying Prevention Center, 2016). The act of bullying have increased enormously in past five years in the United States. Worldwide, schools are intended to be safe places for students to learn valuable skills and grow. However, students wil l likely face negative experiences, such as bullying, which may cause them a lifelongRead MoreBullying Essay1402 Words   |  6 PagesBullying is a widespread problem that negatively affects both the physical and mental wellbeing of children of all ages. The clinician can play a very important role in helping prevent bullying and also treating children who are victims. It can be difficult to know if a child is being bullied or is bullying others, so it is important for practitioners to be aware of the clinical manifestations and ask the right questions. Bullying is defined as an â€Å"act of repeated aggressive behavior performed toRead MoreBullying Persuasive Essay730 Words   |  3 PagesBullying is a problem that happens in almost every single school and it can have many different reasons and ways. Bullying can happen online or at schools. It is becoming a big problem because it is worldwide and it is not good for kids to get bullied. Kids can become depressed when they are being bullied. Also they can have mental health problems later on. It already has a lot of attention but it needs more so it can be stopped. Bullying needs a lot more attention because too many kids are beingRead MorePersuasive Essay On Cyberbullying1172 Words   |  5 PagesAs I walk to the spot we always sit I look and she is not there, I see her with the mean girls bullying a kid. When I see this I am so surprised that I dont even think this is actually happening! As a kid that has been small all my life (So far), I HATE bullying. I was bullied as a kid in 2nd grade because I had just joined the school and I was very small. As I got older I found that I hated bullying because it hurts your feelings a lot and people get depressed from it. I love to stand up forRead MoreA Permanent Solution Of A Temporary Problem1224 Words   |  5 Pages â€Å"A Permanent Solution to a Temporary Problem† Hannah Smith was 14 years old when she decided she didn’t want to live anymore. She took her last breath before she hanged herself on August 2, 2013. Hannah was cyber bullied on the website Ask.fm, and her family believes the bullying triggered her suicide. The cruel messages were sent anonymously to Hannah, and some even told her to she should kill herself (Smith-Spark). Her father, David Smith , grievingly asked, â€Å"how many more teengers willRead MoreSchool Should Be A Safe Place For Children823 Words   |  4 PagesOklahoma City Public Schools Bullying, Harassment, and Discrimination District policy have been put into place for just that, to protect our children. This policy prohibits and does not tolerate bullying, harassment, or discrimination. Bullying is when someone is specifically picked on for their appearance, actions, religion, sexuality, race or sometimes for no reason at all. Bullying has been a part of school for as long as children have been congrega ting. It is a worldwide epidemic hitting schoolsRead MoreCyber-bullying Bullying has been happening for generation after generation. Today’s society700 Words   |  3 PagesCyber-bullying Bullying has been happening for generation after generation. Today’s society made possible to bully people without being face to face. This type of bullying is called cyber-bullying. Teenagers uses theirs electronics advices as weapons to attack other people with hurtful things though the use of text messaging or social networking websites. Cyber-bullying can â€Å"damage a person emotionally† (Media). It can also make them have low self-esteem. In our society today, cyber-bullyingRead MoreBullying : Bullying And Bullying941 Words   |  4 PagesThere are different ways to describe bullying. Stopbullying.gov states the definition of bullying is â€Å"unwanted, aggressive behavior among school aged children that involves a real or perceived power imbalance.† Webster’s dictionary portrays the definition of bullying is to frighten, hurt, or threaten (a smaller or weaker person): to act like a bully toward (someone), or to cause (someone) to do somethin g by making threats or insults or by using force. Violenceproventionworks.org mentions A person

The One Child Policy and Gender Inequality - 1955 Words

Given the high sex ratio in recent China population report, the abnormally excessive male birth exemplifies the persistence of son preference on women’s fertility behavior. Son preference rooted in Chinese agriculture-based economy and historical feudalism, in consistence with the reliance on laborers and continuing the family line. Older people prefer to depend on their sons to get financial and physical support, while daughters are regarded as property of their husband’s family since the day of marriage. However, the wish of having multiple children, especially boys, was challenged by the strict One Child policy in 1979. The One Child policy, also known as Family Planning policy, was implemented across the country as one of fundamental†¦show more content†¦The variables are having siblings or not, siblings’ age and gender, to figure out if the siblings distracted parents’ attention and investment. Key Finding Although, the first two articles written by Li and Cooney (1993), Merli and Smith (2000) began with a similar question on people’s acceptance to One Child policy , ultimately they obtained two contrary conclusions. In accordance with the demographic survey, Li and Conney (1993) concluded that the One Child policy did not remove the discrimination completely, son preference still existed and expanded in many other shapes, for example, some women checked the sex of fetuses by ultrasound and used abortion as a backup method to prevent from the wasting of birth quota if the fetus is female (Kristof 1993). In addition, the regional developmental level and family socioeconomic conditions which were initially taken in proportion to the compliance degree of One Child policy have found negligible and irrelevant. Specifically, it turned out son preference rooted in not only those families with low income and education, but also privileged families holding wealth and highly educated. Thi s opinion, whereas, was opposed with Merli and Smith’s second report in 2000 which insisted the undeniable contribution of regional development and governmentalShow MoreRelatedAchieving Gender Equality : Education1520 Words   |  7 PagesAchieving Gender Equality: Education in China In Gish Jen’s short story Who s Irish?, the main character is a determined Chinese grandmother who moved to America with her husband when she was a young woman, and now, in her old age, she is nearing her limit when she cannot handle her granddaughter s behavior and how she is being raised. The story was written in 1956 and while reading it a question of interest grew in knowing about gender inequality in China and if it has changed in the last severalRead MoreEssay On Gender Inequality1687 Words   |  7 PagesThe concept of gender denotes the distinction between culturally driven and created roles of masculinity and femininity. These specific and normalized attitudes and behaviors transcend and effect how differently men and women live their lives. Based on society’s continual re-enforcement of such gender stereotypes, we see an on-going dilemma of gender inequality. Though some may argue that men experience gender inequality, this seems to exist on a much more invas ive level for women. As of recentlyRead MoreWays in Which Zimbabwe Has Tried to Address Gender Inequalities.1682 Words   |  7 PagesLevel: 2.1 Mode of Entry : Parallel Module : Gender Studies Lecturer: Mr. T. T. Mugodzwa Department : Politics and Public Management Question : a) Discuss four ways in which the education system in your country constructs the gender inequalities. [12] b) Suggest four ways in which the education system in your country can be made gender responsive. [8] a) It has become apparent that since time immemorial the girl child has been socialized to believe that she is inferior inRead MoreGender Issues For Women s Mothers At Work1510 Words   |  7 PagesGender related issues for women inparticula mothers at work. Gender inequality Inequalities have been prevalent since the beginning of civilization. Up until the women’s movement, did we see a shift in feminism whereby women would gain certain rights. Within this movement, the role of the women fell short to discrimination and gender inequalities. The argument stands forth and is true that there are gender inequalities prevailing in all aspects of society. Thus, the concept of gender is notRead MoreThe One Child Policy And Gender Bias993 Words   |  4 Pageseducation. However, one major issue that still needs to be addressed in particular is access to education for women in various countries. Women’s access to education is more limited in China in comparison to the access to education in the United States, due to the one-child policy and gender bias. Women’s access to education in China is much more limited than it is to women in the United States and one main reason for this is something called the one-child policy. The one-child policy basically statesRead MoreGender Inequality : Today s Society Essay1377 Words   |  6 Pages Gender inequality has become an ongrowing issue in today’s society. This issue begun in early history and has grown over time. In early days it simply began as women not being able to vote or not being able to work. This has improved over time and now women have gained those rights, but there are still inequalities in today’s society between genders. When most people think of gender inequality they automatically think of women. Men have also started to become victims of gender inequality. Read MoreIvf Essay1227 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"For years, reproductive specialists have been helping people become parents, even enabling them to choose the sex of their baby. One fertili ty doctor is taking things a step further, offering what some are calling ‘designer babies,’ as Early Show national correspondent Hattie Kauffman reports† (CBS News). Though designer babies are not yet feasible, choosing the gender of the baby is. This is possible through in-vitro fertilization, a process in which an egg is retrieved from a mother and sperm isRead MoreAnalysis Of Gish Jen s Who s Irish?893 Words   |  4 Pagesknowing about how gender inequality in china has changed over the last several decades since the story was written, and wanting to narrow the topic I focused on inequality in education in China. Not many women were fierce and independent women who could make a life of their own, which then brought up the question, has gender inequality changed in Chinese culture? Or to narrow it down some more how has gender inequality in education changed in Chinese culture? Though slowly gender inequality has been changingRead MoreGender Equality And Ge nder Inequality979 Words   |  4 Pages Throughout the past few decades, the gender inequality discourse have became a dominant feature of international, national and local policy debate on the subject of economic development. This policy concern has emerged as an area of scholarly research which seeks to show that improving gender equity leads to economic growth. Gender Inequality in Australia: According to the data published by Australian Bureau of Statistics in May 2015, the full time average earnings of women is $284.20 or 17.9%Read MoreCriminology And Sociology : Criminology1296 Words   |  6 Pagescomplex issues of crime and criminality to find its underlying causes. To do this criminology primarily aims to achieve answers as to why crime occurs; who is committing said crimes and how society as a whole will respond to crime with regards to policy changes and its place in the media (Australian Institute of Criminology: 2015). Sociology is the scientific study of human social interactions in a societal context (Calhoun, 2002). As sociologists study anything human related they can examine anything

A Violation Of The Espionage Laws - 1407 Words

Despite Mitchell s letter, the New York Times declined the order and, as a result, the government got a restraining order against them so no further articles could be published (Moise 921). Because of the restraining order against the New York Times, Daniel Ellsberg went to the Washington Post and gave copies of the secret documents for them to publish on their own. When the government found out about the exchange between the Washington Post editor and Ellsberg, they informed the editor that further publishment of the Pentagon Papers would be a violation of the Espionage Laws. Despite this warning, the editor proceeded to publish articles. When the case was considered by the United States Supreme Court, the ruling was 6-3, which established a precedent that allowed publication of sensitive information, even if the government tried to mask it from the people (The Pentagon Papers: Free- At Last 22). Because of the New York Times v. United States court decision, the First Amendment righ t of freedom of press and prior restraint rights were protected by ensuring that the government generally did not have the power to limit what gets published, unless people’s lives were at stake, by depriving them of knowing information in a time of war. Prior to this ruling, First Amendment cases that involved times of war tended to favor the government. However, in cases that did not involve times of war, the Court ruled in favor of the press. The impact of this case has been to demonstrateShow MoreRelatedCase Analysis : Schenck V. United States852 Words   |  4 PagesUnited States 1. Case Title: The title of the case is Schenck V. United States; it took place in 1919. The plaintiff is the United States and the defendant is Charles Schenck. 2. The law: This case involves the Espionage Act and the first amendment. United States convicted Schenck on the basis of violating the Espionage Act, specifically Section 3, which states when the United States is at war, people can not willingly cause or attempt to cause disloyalty and refusal of duty in the military or navalRead MoreBarack Obama s Presidential Debates1110 Words   |  5 PagesSnowden and former NSA executive Thomas Drake faced charges of violations of the Espionage Act (the Act). Snowden, the former CIA employee and government contractor who in 2013 leaked classified information from the NSA, created the tempest during this administration under the Espionage Act and fled the country and remains at large presumably residing in Russia.. Drake challenged the DOJ and faced his charges under the Espionage Act. His concerns about wasteful government spending at theRead MoreCorporate Espionage653 Words   |  3 PagesCorporate Espionage Introduction Corporate espionage is and interesting topic and it mirrors espionage that is conducted by governments except for the fact that the activities are directed at commercial purposes as opposed to national security or other related items. Corporate espionage, also called industrial or economic espionage, encompasses a wide range of different activities that involve the illegal acquisition of trade secrets or other corporate information that can be used for financialRead MoreThe Development Of American Law1333 Words   |  6 PagesHere was the development of American Law. Americans updated the way of creating laws and pursuit from the beginning of the common law. Actually, to be an elected citizen representatives, the legislature suppose to make a law, named â€Å"statutes†. Therefore, courts must apply the law reasonably and regularly like the U.S. Constitution requested it. The same thing for American society, there is a big different during the Industrial Revolution, it esta blished administrative regulations in order to leadingRead MoreSchenck v. United States: A Federal Crime1507 Words   |  7 Pageswas arrested and convicted of violating the Espionage Act of 1917. This was the time the WWI one had broken out, the government need men to fight. They were short staffed for that to work and they need man to fight this war so the military started selecting citizen randomly to draft. Schenck fought against this draft saying this in a way it was like slavery. When the United States entered WWI in 1917, Congress passed a law called the Espionage Act. The law stated that during wartime obstructing theRead MoreIntellectual Property Protection and Enforcement Essay1365 Words   |  6 Pageshas a significant value to both individuals and businesses, providing in the case of large companies, over one half of their value on return. Since intellectual property rights are so important to the U.S. economy and its citizens, federal and state law provides protection, for example, civil damages and criminal penalties to be assessed against infringers. Due to the importance of intellectual property to a business, I don’t think that its protection and enforcement is going to be a thing of the pastRead MoreEssay about Espionage Act of 1917 and Sedition Act (Amendment) of 19181468 Words   |  6 PagesEspionage Act of 1917 and Sedition Act (Amendment) of 1918   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On April 2nd 1917, President Woodrow Wilson of the United States of America, went before Congress and called for a declaration of war. Both the House and the Senate voted overwhelmingly in favor of going to war with Germany.?# This was an act that led to much resistance among the American people. Not four months earlier the American people re-elected President Wilson, partly because of his success in keeping the United StatesRead MoreWikileaks : A Project Of The Sunshine Press1742 Words   |  7 Pageswho adhere to this point of view argue that WikiLeaks is in direct violation of the espionage act of 1917. The espionage act was put in place in 1917 and it states that, â€Å"this law was designed to prevent any obstruction of military operations and made it illegal for any person to transmit information that interferes with the United States Armed Forces during a time of war† (Castaldy). WikiLeaks activities fall under the espionage act and that it has rele ased a great number of classified informationRead MoreProblems with Ethiopia’s Unofficial Cyber Espionage Essay1038 Words   |  5 Pagesadvanced in cyber espionage against its citizen’s. Innocent journalist from local and from other countries are being tortured, killed and imprisoned for speaking their opinions to the world. Ethiopia’s unofficial cyber espionage program targets innocent journalists and violates the United Nations-The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights - Article 19 Freedom of Expression. The purpose of this paper will address problems with Ethiopia’s unofficial cyber espionage and evaluate the effectsRead More The F.B.I. Essay1111 Words   |  5 PagesThe F.B.I. To uphold the law through the investigation of violations of federal criminal law; to protect the U.S. from foreign intelligence and terrorist activities; to provide leadership and law enforcement assistance to federal, state, local, and international agencies; and to perform these responsibilities in a manner that is responsive to the needs of the public and is faithful to the constitution of the U.S.: this is the mission of the Federal Bureau of Investigation. The agency now

Effects of Quality and Environmental Management †MyAssignmenthelp

Question: Discuss about the Effects of Quality and Environmental Management. Answer: Introduction The Occidental Hotel in Sydney is a famous seafood restaurant with classic bar. It has also provisions of lodging facility. Occidental Hotel is a dining restaurant with families and friends with great service quality. This paper will highlight the summary of the executive chef of Occidental hotel. The prices of various cuisines and the famous seafood of the restaurant are provided at an affordable rate to the customers. The chef of the restaurant co-ordinates with the front house of operation and the back house of operation. The chef also properly maintains proper communication with the front house and the back house of operation. The customers are provided with affordable service and they recommended their friends to visit the restaurant. The chef also tries of analyze the cost of operation as it will benefit the customers as well as the management authority (Saleem and Raja 2014). The chef of Occidental hotel tries to increase the reputation of the hotel by training, managing and developing the members of the kitchen. He provides them necessary training and he maintains the entire kitchen brigades. Occidental hotel is one of the leading seafood restaurants in Sydney. It also has the provision of beverages and thus is preferred by the tourist as well as the local community. The executive chef of Occidental hotel prepares special dishes for the people on weekends (Molina-Azorn et al 2015). The chef along with the executive chef implements new palns and brings changes in the food items. The customers also visit the restaurant to try out their famous cuisines. The chef personally meets with the customers sometimes and thus interacts with them to know their likes and dislikes. The chef brings innovative ideas to develop the restaurant so that it will yield more profit to the hotel. The chef also has to confront various challenges and thus work co-operatively in the group (Karatepe et al. 2014). He has to motivate his team members and thus convince them so that they can improve the food quality and thus prepare good food for the customers. As the hotel industry is competitive, the chef has to implement new innovative ideas and retain the customers. The chef must also be able to fulfill the needs and demands of the customers by providing them the right cuisines. It is also the duty and responsibility of the chef to communicate with the customers frequently and thus bring out necessary changes in the menu (Leung et al.2015).. Maintaining the cost control of front of house operation The front hose of operation in a restaurant refers to the area outside the kitchen. It is usually the dining area, the rest room and the bar. The chef must manage the front house of operation and it includes customer service, designing the dining space, planning out different promotions in the restaurants and many more. It is important for the chef to understand and analyze the front house of operation of the restaurant. The chef of Occidental hotel has mentioned that it is necessary to generate food cost between 28% and 35% without deteriorating the quality of food (Jani and Han, 2014). This is vital and necessary for the attainment of profitability. It is also necessary to keep the food cost reasonable or else it will affect the bottom line business of the restaurant. The menu must be prepared in such a way so that it can be easily altered. If the customers do not get their desired food according to choice, they will not be willing to visit the restaurant again. Thus, it is necessa ry that the chef provides alternative cuisines to the customers so that they do not return home disappointed. The chef must also insist the customers to place cost effective orders and thus it will help in controlling the food cost. The chef must also maintain a monthly and weekly inventory of the food items. They must also keep a track of the kitchen equipments and the services that are delivered to the customers(Gin Choi, Kwon and Kim 2013). The back house of operation of the restaurant involves those areas which are not visible to the public. It involves the storage room and the kitchen in the restaurant. The chef has highlighted that they try to use the written recipes so that they can use the correct proportion of seasonings and spices. It is also necessary to streamline the waste reduction. It is also necessary to manage the in-house staffs and thus maintain the daily schedules. The chef must be able to maintain a healthy inventory and also keep a track of the monthly inventories. This will help in identifying the loses of the restaurant and thus keep a track. It will also help in improving the ordering processes. The chef also has to take care of the administrative tasks and hire different kitchen staffs according to the specialization (Ali and Amin 2014). Financial cost control methods used in daily business operation There are huge costs which are associated with the receiving, purchasing and storing of raw materials in food and beverage establishments. There are various cost control measures which area associated at various stages of operation and thus it also helps in mitigating the problems. The role of standards is necessary and it is the vital responsibility of the chef. There are certain procedures which are important for the preparation of food items within a specific cost. Several steps are taken for the improvement and maintenance of the food standard. Proper training is necessary and thus it becomes easier for all employees to understand the duties. The most important aspect of cost control which is followed by the chef is the operation budget. This helps in forecasting the sales activities and the overall business volume(Nieves and Segarra-Ciprs 2015). The executive chef of Occidental Hotel maintains good relation with the employees and the customers. The chef has to maintain the quality of food because the hotel industry is facing steep competition. The executive chef has to implement new ideas and work in co-ordination with the staffs and thus improve the business. The chef must also monitor the activities of the other working staffs and check whether the customers are happy and satisfied with their service and food quality. He must also take care of the administrative staffs. There must be mutual trust and respect among the employees and thus they must work in co-ordination for the development of the restaurant (Ali and Amin 2014).. Moreover, the chef must also prepare the menu in such a way that the items can be4 easily altered if any particular dish is not available. The executive chef must try to purchase the raw materials on credit so that it will reduce the cost. To stay in competition with the other restaurants of Sydney, it is necessary that the executive chef of occidental hotel takes proper care to include traditional dishes in their menu during festive seasons. Thus, it is necessary that the chef pays more attention to cost control methods. The cost control methods must be taken by the chef along with the help of the management authority of the restaurant. He must also take acre that the brigades serve the food to the customer in proper time. Direct interaction with the customers will also help the chef to know the needs and demands of the customers. It is important that the chef must carry out his responsibilities in a proper way (Benavides-Velasco et al. 2014). References Ali, F. and Amin, M., 2014. The influence of physical environment on emotions, customer satisfaction and behavioural intentions in Chinese resort hotel industry.Journal for Global Business Advancement,7(3), pp.249-266. Benavides-Velasco, C.A., Quintana-Garca, C. and Marchante-Lara, M., 2014. Total quality management, corporate social responsibility and performance in the hotel industry.International Journal of Hospitality Management,41, pp.77-87. Gin Choi, Y., Kwon, J. and Kim, W., 2013. Effects of attitudes vs experience of workplace fun on employee behaviors: Focused on Generation Y in the hospitality industry.International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management,25(3), pp.410-427. Jani, D. and Han, H., 2014. Personality, satisfaction, image, ambience, and loyalty: Testing their relationships in the hotel industry.International Journal of Hospitality Management,37, pp.11-20. Karatepe, O.M., Beirami, E., Bouzari, M. and Safavi, H.P., 2014. Does work engagement mediate the effects of challenge stressors on job outcomes? Evidence from the hotel industry.International Journal of Hospitality Management,36, pp.14-22. Leung, X.Y., Bai, B. and Stahura, K.A., 2015. The marketing effectiveness of social media in the hotel industry: A comparison of Facebook and Twitter.Journal of Hospitality Tourism Research,39(2), pp.147-169. Molina-Azorn, J.F., Tar, J.J., Pereira-Moliner, J., Lpez-Gamero, M.D. and Pertusa-Ortega, E.M., 2015. The effects of quality and environmental management on competitive advantage: A mixed methods study in the hotel industry.Tourism Management,50, pp.41-54. Nieves, J. and Segarra-Ciprs, M., 2015. Management innovation in the hotel industry.Tourism Management,46, pp.51-58. Sachs, C., Allen, P., Terman, A.R., Hayden, J. and Hatcher, C., 2014. Front and back of the house: Socio-spatial inequalities in food work.Agriculture and Human Values,31(1), pp.3-17. Saleem, H. and Raja, N.S., 2014. The impact of service quality on customer satisfaction, customer loyalty and brand image: Evidence from hotel industry of Pakistan.Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research,19(5), pp.706-711.

The Truman Show

The Truman Show Media Encroachment Essay In the movie The Truman Show (Peter Weir, 1998) the character Truman Burbank (Jim Carrey) is turned into the main character of a worldwide successful TV show without knowing it. He had been an unwanted child and was adopted by a company, thus becoming the first child in the world adopted by a company. The television show portrays his life in Seahaven from his birth on, where he is the unknowingly the main character, while all the other persons in his world are actors directed by the producer Christof (Ed Harris), who wants to create the perfect world and therefore plans every single step Truman takes and all the relationships that Truman establishes. The movie The Truman Show can be interpreted as a portrait of the encroachment of the media onto the private lives of the american nation, which forces them to watch and buy their products. We will write a custom essay on The Truman Show Media Encroachment specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now Since the 16th century people have always wanted an engrossing conflation of real and imaginary (Tony E. Jackson 2010, 141). This has had the effect that film studios and producers have come up with TV shows which have become the most popular television formats in the last couple of years. One explanation which accounts most for the success is that reality television makes it possible for the average person to be both a viewer and a TV star at the same time (Breyer 2004, 3). The producers use this desire to get deeply into the personal lives of the pseudo-stars. As a result it keeps them watching these shows on a regular basis. In the movie the producer Christof manufactures ways to keep on the island (Jackson, 2010, 145). When Truman was a boy Christof created a scene where Truman was sailing on a boot with his father, when suddenly a big storm came up and his father vanished. One programmed outcome of this event is a fear of going over water; as a result he cant leave the island Seahaven (Jackson 2010, 145). When the character suspects for the first time that his world might be fake, the producer tries to use this fear in order to keep him on the island. Since this trick didnt work, he creates a leak in a nuclear power plant, which finally prevails on Truman to go back into his world. In the USA the media use the power of storytelling in television shows and movies by creating dramatic turning points, cliffhangers and unexpected or happy endings to make the viewers wanting to turn on the TV on a weekly basis. The anticipation of the end is what makes the beginning and middle of any story engaging (Jackson 2010, 146). Every movie or TV Show budget is partly financed by commercial breaks, through the film studios which make money by showing specific advertisement and therefore getting money from the producing company of the products (Glickman and Kim 2012, 1). Since the television show The Truman Show in the movie The Truman Show presents the life of the main character 24 hours a day without any break, there is no place for commercial breaks. As a result, the show generates enormous revenues through far from subtle product placements (Knox Fall 2010, 2). Every product seen on the show -from food, shoes to buildings- can be bought in the Truman catalogue (Wise 2002, 37). In this way they try to reach their goal of influencing people to buy their products. The media landscape of the US use the product placement as representative of the migration of advertisements from separated, regulated spaces into the spaces of programs, films, and eventually out of the media and into our lives (Wise 2002, 37). .ub2b7b8e57c3bd9dd25b2ba29d0d96f5e , .ub2b7b8e57c3bd9dd25b2ba29d0d96f5e .postImageUrl , .ub2b7b8e57c3bd9dd25b2ba29d0d96f5e .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ub2b7b8e57c3bd9dd25b2ba29d0d96f5e , .ub2b7b8e57c3bd9dd25b2ba29d0d96f5e:hover , .ub2b7b8e57c3bd9dd25b2ba29d0d96f5e:visited , .ub2b7b8e57c3bd9dd25b2ba29d0d96f5e:active { border:0!important; } .ub2b7b8e57c3bd9dd25b2ba29d0d96f5e .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ub2b7b8e57c3bd9dd25b2ba29d0d96f5e { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ub2b7b8e57c3bd9dd25b2ba29d0d96f5e:active , .ub2b7b8e57c3bd9dd25b2ba29d0d96f5e:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ub2b7b8e57c3bd9dd25b2ba29d0d96f5e .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ub2b7b8e57c3bd9dd25b2ba29d0d96f5e .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ub2b7b8e57c3bd9dd25b2ba29d0d96f5e .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ub2b7b8e57c3bd9dd25b2ba29d0d96f5e .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ub2b7b8e57c3bd9dd25b2ba29d0d96f5e:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ub2b7b8e57c3bd9dd25b2ba29d0d96f5e .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ub2b7b8e57c3bd9dd25b2ba29d0d96f5e .ub2b7b8e57c3bd9dd25b2ba29d0d96f5e-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ub2b7b8e57c3bd9dd25b2ba29d0d96f5e:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Documentary - A Time For Burning EssayWise describes these kind of branding everyday life as work of the advertiser to make the brands and logos the personal habits of the consumer (2002, 37). In conclusion we can state that the movie illustrates, on the one hand, how the film studios in Hollywood influence and manipulate us by advertising products through product placement; on the other hand, the movie stands for the wish of the average American to become famous and rich (that is to say, the American Dream). All this is done cleverly by building up a thrilling arc of suspense, thus making the viewer watch their shows and buy their products. Bibliography: Breyer, Richard. 2004. Reality TV. The World I. 19 (1): 3 Glickman, Len and Kim, Anita. 2012. Product Placement and Technology: Developments, Opportunities, and Challenges. The Entertainment and Sports Lawyer. 30:1 Jackson, Tony E. September 2010. Televisual Realism: Truman Show. Mosaic 43(3):140-146. Knox, Simone. Fall 2010. Reading The Truman Show Inside Out. Film Criticism.35 (1): 1 Wise, Macgregor .2002. Mapping the Culture of Control – Seeing through the Truman Show. Television New Media. 3: 37- The Meaning of The Truman Show. TransparencyNow. http://www.transparencynow.com/trusig.htm (Accessed: 02.10.14 16:42) Other Meanings:Birth, Mind, Myth. TransparencyNow. http://www.transparencynow.com/trudom.htm (Accessed: 02.10.14 17:16)

De creativiteit van de politieke cultuur †Nederlandse Essay

De creativiteit van de politieke cultuur – Nederlandse Essay Free Online Research Papers De creativiteit van de politieke cultuur Nederlandse Essay Als we proberen om het domein te omschrijven dat wordt bestudeerd door de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur, dan zullen in deze omschrijving de termen ‘politiek’ en ‘maatschappij’ niet mogen ontbreken. De geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur bestudeert immers de wisselwerking tussen enerzijds staat (of, inderdaad, politiek) en anderzijds maatschappij. Hierbij zijn ook informele aspecten van belang: zonder inzicht in de informele aspecten van politiek en maatschappij kunnen we nog maar weinig begrijpen van het daadwerkelijke functioneren van de politieke cultuur. Maar waarom is de bestudering van de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur zo belangrijk? Wat is het dat maakt dat dit profiel een grotere verklarende kracht heeft dan de andere profielen? Voordat ik deze vragen beantwoord moet eerst duidelijk worden dat de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur iets anders is dan de politieke filosofie – hoewel de geschiedenis van de politieke filosofie een inherent onderdeel is van de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur. De politieke filosofie houdt zich immers bezig met de beantwoording van de vraag hoe samenlevingen het beste kunnen worden ingericht. De geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur houdt zich vervolgens bezig met de bestudering van het daadwerkelijke functioneren van deze inrichting. Uit deze omschrijvingen blijkt evenwel dat de domeinen van de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur en de politieke filosofie zeer dicht bij elkaar kunnen liggen. Dat is echter niet noodzakelijkerwijs zo. In dit essay zal ik proberen aan te geven wat ik aantrekkelijk vind aan de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur. Hiertoe zal ik allereerst het bereik van dit profiel schetsen. Vervolgens zal ik aandacht schenken aan een benaderingswijze waarbij zowel wordt verwezen naar de politieke filosofie als naar de politieke realiteit. Hierbij zal ook het belang van deze benadering worden aangekaart; deze benadering geeft ons zeer specifieke inzichten in het functioneren van de historische en de hedendaagse politiek. In de conclusie zal getracht worden tot een omschrijving te komen van de aantrekkingskracht van geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur. Het bereik van de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur Wat betreft het bereik van de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur is het veelzeggend dat beoefenaars van de andere profielen aangeven dat de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur relevante antwoorden verschaft op vragen uit deze andere profielen. Laten we eerst kijken naar de studie van de internationale context. Carl von Clausewitz, de grote Pruisische strateeg, heeft geschreven dat â€Å"†¦ war is not merely an act of policy but a true political instrument, a continuation of political intercourse, carried on with other means. †¦ The political object is the goal, war is the means of reaching it, and means can never be considered in isolation from their purpose.† Als we oorlog als een voortzetting van diplomatie zien, dan kunnen we vervolgens deze uitspraak ook van toepassing laten zijn op het functioneren van internationale organisaties. En het functioneren van deze organisaties als instrument is afhankelijk van de doelstellingen zoals die in de verschillende pol itieke centra zijn vastgesteld. Het zijn de politici die het beleid bepalen, de diplomaten voeren het slechts uit – althans, dat proberen ze. Kortom: wie ook maar iets van het doen en laten van internationale organisaties wil begrijpen zal te rade moeten gaan bij de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur. Beoefenaars van de economische en sociale geschiedenis zijn decennia lang op zoek geweest naar de heilige graal: met behulp van mathematische modellen wilden zij de verklaring voor economische groei vinden. Vandaag de dag wordt echter – ironisch genoeg als uitkomst van de zogenaamde cliometrische revolutie – gewezen op tekortkomingen van deze methode. Historisch onderzoek is echter meer dan het bestuderen van cijferreeksen. In de economische en sociale geschiedenis hebben we immers niet te maken met abstracte modellen maar met de realiteit – wiskundige modellen zijn eenvoudigweg niet opgewassen tegen de complexiteit van economische activiteiten en economische verandering. Volgens de vooraanstaande New Economic Historian Douglass C. North zullen we om deze complexiteit enigszins te kunnen begrijpen aandacht moeten schenken aan instituties en hun werking op de sociaal-economische werkelijkheid. Maar wat zijn instituties? North omschrijft instituties als †¦ the humanly devised constraints that structure political, economic and social interaction. They consist of both informal constraints (sanctions, taboos, customs, traditions, and codes of conduct) and formal rules (constitutions, laws, property rights). Throughout history, institutions have been devised by human beings to create order and reduce uncertainty in exchange. Together with the standard constraints of economics they define the choice set and therefore determine transaction and production costs and hence the profitability and feasibility of engaging in economic activity. They evolve incrementally, connecting the past with the present and the future; history in consequence is largely a story of institutional evolution in which the historical performance of economies can only be understood as a part of a sequential story. Institutions provide the incentive structure of an economy; as that structure evolves, it shapes the direction of economic change towards growth, stag nation, or decline. Als we deze instituties aan het domein van een van de profielen moeten verbinden, dan komen we onverbiddelijk uit bij de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur. De geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur is immers bij uitstek het profiel dat zich richt op de inrichting en het functioneren van onze maatschappij. Problemen en oplossingen Hoe moeten we de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur benaderen? Ankersmit weet ons in het vierde hoofdstuk van zijn in 2002 verschenen boek Political representation te vertellen dat ieder politiek systeem kan – en moet – worden beschouwd als een specifiek antwoord op een specifieke politieke uitdaging. We begrijpen het functioneren van deze politieke systemen (en dus ook instituties) dan ook beter als we nagaan hoe ze zijn ingericht om specifieke problemen op te lossen. Volgens Ankersmit kunnen we de wortels van deze benadering vinden in een artikel uit 1953 van Quentin Skinner. Dit artikel wordt wel beschouwd als de grondtekst van de Cambridge school of political theory: The essential question which we therefore confront, in studying any given text, is what its author, in writing at the time he did write for the audience he intended to address, could in practice have been intending to communicate by the utterance of this given utterance. It follows that the essential aim, in any attempt to understand the utterances themselves, must be to recover this complex intention on the part of the author. And it follows from this that the appropriate methodology for the history of ideas must be concerned, first of all, to delineate the whole range of communications which could have been conventionally performed on the given occasion by the utterance of the given utterance, and, next, to trace the relations between the given utterance and this wider linguistic context as a means of decoding the actual intention of the given writer. De gedachtegang van Skinner komt er op neer, zo stelt Ankersmit in zijn Denken over geschiedenis, dat de teksten die politieke filosofen en theoretici schreven specifieke antwoorden waren op de voor hun tijd specifieke problemen. De gelijkenis tussen de in 1953 geà ¯ntroduceerde benadering van Skinner en de bijna vijftig jaar later voorgestelde benadering van Ankersmit is inderdaad opmerkelijk. Eigenlijk benaderen zij twee verschillende fenomenen op dezelfde manier: daar waar Skinner zich beweegt op het niveau van teksten, heeft Ankersmit juist aandacht voor de politieke praktijk. De vraag is waarom deze benaderingswijze nooit eerder is toegepast op representatieve democratie. Volgens Ankersmit is dit zo omdat we het feodalisme en het absolutisme veelal beschouwen als een soort flogiston. We hoefden de democratie maar (opnieuw) te ontdekken en iedereen zag in dat de andere twee systemen een dwaling waren geweest. Deze twee oudere praktijken werden dan ook niet serieus genomen. Het succes van de representatieve democratie hoefde dan ook niet verklaard te worden omdat het als vanzelfsprekend werd gezien. In een recensie betwijfeld Andrew Rehfeld of de door Ankersmit voorgestelde benadering wel zo nieuw is. Hierbij vraagt Rehfeld zich af wat het verschil is tussen de ‘nieuwe benadering’ van Ankersmit en de these van de padafhankelijkheid. Als deze benadering inderdaad een vorm is van padafhankelijkheid, dan zou Ankersmit (waarschijnlijk) onbedoeld tegemoet komen aan de suggestie van North om de idee van padafhankelijkheid te verbreden naar de institutionele context. Laten we eerst recapituleren wat padafhankelijkheid behelst. J.W. Drukker omschrijft in zijn De revolutie die in haar eigen staart beet hoe Paul David op het formuleren van deze these kwam. Het uitgangspunt van David was de configuratie van het qwerty-toetsenbord. Bij dit toetsenbord zijn de letters zo geplaatst dat bij het schrijven van een willekeurige Engelse tekst de kans op het jammen van de stalen armen van de machine zo klein mogelijk is. qwerty garandeerde zo een efficià «ntieoptimum en werd de wer eldwijde standaard. En we zitten er nu nog steeds aan vast, terwijl de beperkingen van de ouderwetse typemachine geen rol meer spelen en efficià «ntere systemen mogelijk zijn. De oorzaak hiervan is dat we destijds hebben gekozen voor qwerty. Samengevat door Paul David: â€Å"History matters.† De these van de padafhankelijkheid komt er in het kort dus op neer dat in het verleden gemaakte keuzes invloed hebben op de keuzes die we in het heden (kunnen) maken. Of, zoals Drukker het formuleert: â€Å"als de mens uit de giraf was geà «volueerd en niet uit de mensapen, dan had hij er nu anders uitgezien.† Toegepast op politieke systemen: als we willen weten waarom representatieve democratie zo is zoals ze is, dan zullen we naar haar verleden moeten kijken. Tot zo ver houdt de door Rehfeld geconstateerde analogie stand (we kunnen immers het jammen als het specifieke probleem zien en qwerty als de oplossing). Er is echter sprake van een belangrijk verschil tussen de benadering van de padafhankelijkheid en de probleem-oplossing-benadering van Ankersmit. We maken immers gebruik van de these van padafhankelijkheid als we willen verklaren waarom we nog steeds gebruik maken van een verouderde oplossing voor een probleem dat niet meer aan de orde is of inmiddels op efficià «ntere manieren kan worden opgelost: we gebruiken qwerty, maar het dient nergens meer toe omdat de stalen hamers zijn verdwenen. qwerty staat zo de ingebruikname van efficià «ntere systemen in de weg. En dat is wat Paul David heeft willen verklaren. Ankersmit wil met zijn benadering juist laten zien dat we door aandacht te schenken aan de problemen die aan de vestiging van politieke systemen ten grondslag liggen te weten kunnen komen hoe deze politieke systemen zijn afgestemd. Zoals Ankersmit stelt: de problemen die opgelost moeten worden bepalen de ‘politieke psychologie’ van het systeem. Als we weten wat het op te lossen probleem is, zoals de jammende stalen armen van de typemachine, begrijpen we ook beter hoe de oplossing, qwerty, functioneert. Samengevat: de these van de padafhankelijkheid wil ons verklaren waarom we aan een bepaalde (inefficià «nte) oplossing vastzitten terwijl de benadering van Ankersmit juist duidelijk maakt hoe een bepaalde oplossing functioneert. Een ander punt dat Rehfeld aansnijdt is dat Ankersmit niet de eerste is die aandacht schenkt aan de historische wortels van politieke verschijnselen. Tocqueville, Guizot en Mill hadden hier ook aandacht voor, zo schrijft Rehfeld, en recentelijk hebben ook auteurs als Stephen Holmes en Bernard Manin succesvolle analyses gegeven van het verleden van de representatieve democratie. Rehfeld lijkt Ankersmit te verwijten dat hij niet bijster origineel is met zijn benaderingswijze. Kijken we echter naar bijvoorbeeld The principles of representative government van Manin dan blijkt dit boek een geschiedenis, of beter, een genealogie te bieden van het verschijnsel representatieve democratie. In zijn werk wijst hij op een aantal praktijken en instituties die in de late achttiende eeuw zijn geconcretiseerd, en die hij omschrijft als de ‘principes’ van representatief bestuur. Deze zijn: (1) de representanten worden gekozen door de staatsburgers, (2) de representanten behouden een zek ere onafhankelijkheid ten opzichte van hun kiezers, (3) er is vrijheid van meningsuiting en (4) beleid komt voort uit discussie. Wat betreft de toepassing van het boven beschreven systeem heeft Rehfeld ook een opmerking. Het is immers zo dat als politieke systemen een specifieke oplossing zijn voor specifieke problemen, dat we dan de vraag kunnen stellen voor welke specifieke problemen de totalitaire systemen van de twintigste eeuw de oplossing vormden. Ankersmit lijkt het hiermee eens te zijn: â€Å"No less than all these other political systems – forgotten, ridiculed, or even abhorred – it [democratie, JdB] also is a product of a unique and specific set of historical circumstances and should be assessed accordingly.† En als we vervolgens kijken naar de westerse democratieà «n, dan kunnen we de vraag stellen hoe zij zijn omgegaan met dit totalitaire probleem en hoe zij de oplossing hiervoor in hun ‘politieke psychologie’ hebben geà ¯ncorporeerd. Herinneren we ons echter Ankersmits voorstel, dan wordt duidelijk dat hij ons juist aanspoort de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur te benaderen vanuit haar ‘wortels’. Met andere woorden, de ‘politieke psychologie’ van de systemen die met het totalitarisme werden geconfronteerd was eerder gevormd, namelijk als de romantische poging om de verschillen in de post-revolutionaire samenleving te overbruggen. Democratie door representatie Laten we eens kijken hoe Ankersmit dit voorstel verder uitwerkt. Allereerst maakt hij duidelijk dat de absolute monarchie het antwoord vormde op de religieoorlogen. De staat slaagde erin zich los te maken van de civil society en kon zich daarna verheffen boven het religieuze conflict. Ankersmit is zelfs bereid te stellen dat we wel iets gunstiger mogen oordelen over de absolute monarchie, al was het alleen maar omdat de vestiging van de absolute monarchie de scheiding tussen staat en samenleving teweeg had gebracht. Vervolgens maakt Ankersmit duidelijk dat in 1815 de staat zelf de inzet van politieke strijd was geworden. Aangezien de staat de ‘beloning’ voor de winnaar van dit politieke conflict zou worden, moest de oplossing voor dit conflict elders liggen. Er waren twee mogelijkheden: of de staat zou ten onder gaan in dit politieke conflict, of de staat zou worden gecontroleerd door à ©Ãƒ ©n van de strijdende partijen. Beide oplossingen zouden tot burgeroorlog leide n waardoor het probleem onoplosbaar leek. Vandaar ook dat Tocqueville schreef: â€Å"The organization and the establishment of democracy is the great political problem of our time.† De parlementaire, representatieve democratie was nu een poging om de pijnpunten uit de post-revolutionaire samenleving weg te nemen. De conflicten werden als het ware uit de samenleving genomen en zouden nu in het parlement worden uitgevochten. In het parlement was het enige waar men naar kon streven het compromis, zo stelt Ankersmit: â€Å"†¦ compromise is governed by a kind of political logic other than consensus: for compromise, unlike consensus, retains the possibility of cooperation even when people hold different views and are also determined to maintain these.† Nu is Ankersmit in een situatie beland waar het lijkt dat representatieve democratie een product is van het (romantische) negentiende-eeuwse continent. En dat terwijl het Engelse Parliament toch ‘the mother of all parliaments’ is? Ankersmit erkent dit probleem en wijst op het werk van Michel Albert. Albert maakt in zijn Les deux capitalismes een onderscheid tussen de zogenaamde Angelsaksische democratieà «n (Groot-Brittannià «, Verenigde Staten) en de ‘Rijndemocratieà «n’, oftewel de democratieà «n van het West-Europese continent en Japan. Angelsaksische democratieà «n ingericht als antwoord op te machtige leiders: er was geen sprake van verdeling onder de bevolking, maar van een samenwerken onder de bevolking om de macht van de koning of de president binnen acceptabele grenzen te houden. Daarom is de politieke partij met de meerderheid te zien als de opvolger van de absolute vorst. Het continentale model is er daarentegen op gericht om problemen binn en de samenleving op te lossen door middel van het compromis. Aangezien onze vertegenwoordigers in het parlement compromissen moeten kunnen sluiten, is de autonomie van representanten ten opzichte van de gerepresenteerden een noodzakelijkheid voor het voeren van een zinvolle discussie in het parlement. Zoals Jeremy Bentham schreef is de enige manier om de overwegingen van een representant te beà ¯nvloeden het recht om deze niet te herkiezen. De representatie is immers geen belangenbehartiging (van een segment van de samenleving) en de representant is geen delegaat maar een gevolmachtigde. De afgevaardigde moet met andere woorden compleet vrij zijn in zijn pogingen om compromis te bereiken met de andere spelers in het maatschappelijke conflict: â€Å"it [representatief bestuur, JdB] is an exercise in principled unprincipledness, an exploration of where agreements can be attained, an organization of truths previously thought immiscible.† Mits aan de voorwaarde van autonomie is voldaan kan een representatie daadwerkelijk op een effectiev e wijze optreden in het belang van alle gerepresenteerden. Zoals Sià ©yà ¨s ons weet te vertellen: â€Å"It is thus incontestable that the deputies are at the National Assembly not in order to announce the already formed wishes of their constituents, but to freely deliberate and vote according to their present judgment, enlightened by all the lights the assembly can provide to each person.† Dat betekent dat de kloof tussen de representatie en de gerepresenteerden van daadwerkelijk belang is: â€Å"†¦ legitimate political power wells up †¦ in the hollow between the two groups.† Precies op deze laatste zinsnede heeft Rehfeld commentaar: â€Å"Precisely what does it mean for political power to ‘well up’ in the ‘hollow between . . . groups’? Many of Ankersmit’s arguments are best captured by what Georges Cuvier termed ‘metaphors mistaken for reasoning.’† Door de metafoor te beschouwen als een mislukte rede nering mist Rehfeld precies het punt dat wordt gemaakt. Door te stellen dat legitieme politieke macht in de kloof tussen representatie en gerepresenteerden ontstaat, wordt immers duidelijk dat legitieme politieke macht niet iets is dat à ©Ãƒ ©n van beide groepen toebehoort – en probeer die gedachte maar eens duidelijk te verwoorden zonder gebruik van metaforen. Centraal in de besluitvorming van representatief bestuur staat het uitgangspunt dat beleid voortkomt uit discussie in de representatie, waarna, ‘enlightened by all the lights the assembly can provide,’ het voorstel met de meeste steun doorgang zal vinden. Dit meerderheidsbeginsel is in democratische theorieà «n ingebracht om het (praktische) probleem van unanieme legitimatie te voorkomen, en, zoals John Locke ons meedeelt, sorteert een efficià «ntere beslissingsprocedure: For that which acts any community being only the consent of the individuals of it, and it being necessary to that which is one body to move one way; it is necessary the body should move that way whither the greater force carries it, which is the consent of the majority: or else it is impossible it should continue act or continue one body, one community†¦ De legitimiteit van de uitslag van de beslissingsprocedure ligt in de confrontatie tussen voorstellen. Een legitieme beslissing representeert dus niet een unanieme wil, maar is het resultaat van een weloverwogen meningsvorming van allen. En juist omdat in de politieke cultuur nieuwe, originele ‘organizations of truths’ worden gemaakt, dat wil zeggen, op creatieve wijze oplossingen worden voortgebracht, heeft de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur de historicus het meest te bieden. Nieuwe problemen Zoals gezegd is het het voorstel van Skinner om teksten op het gebied van de politieke filosofie te beschouwen als specifieke antwoorden op specifieke problemen. Laten we nu de methodologie van Skinner eens toepassen op dit hoofdstuk van Ankersmit. Als we dat doen, dan kunnen we immers achterhalen waarom deze tekst is geschreven en welk specifieke doel de auteur met deze tekst voor ogen had. En Ankersmit geeft ook het antwoord op deze vragen. Hij stelt dat tegenwoordig het conflict tussen verschillende belangen in de samenleving is vervangen door verschillende belangen binnen de mensen zelf. We hebben allemaal dezelfde problemen (de problemen zijn dus democratischer geworden) en moeten nu een keuze maken tussen onze belangen op de korte en op de lange termijn. De verschillende politieke partijen zullen zich langs deze nieuwe scheidslijn moeten opstellen willen zij nog relevant zijn voor de burger: het conflict dat zich afspeelt binnen de burger dient ook zichtbaar te zijn in de poli tieke arena wil de representatieve democratie overleven. En dat laatste is volgens Ankersmit van het allergrootste belang: â€Å"For I remain convinced that we cannot do without representative democracy.† Het is echter de vraag of de oude oplossingen geschikt zijn om de nieuwe problemen op te lossen. Wat betreft deze vraag is het werk van de Duitse socioloog Ulrich Beck uitermate interessant. In de moderne industrià «le samenleving speelde het idee van solidariteit een grote rol, in de risicosamenleving heeft men daarentegen aandacht voor risico’s en de minimalisering van deze risico’s. Het draait kortom om de verschillende â€Å"Verteilungslogiken der goods (Gà ¼ter, Einkommen) und bads (Krankheits- und Katastrophenwahrscheinlichkeiten).â€Å" Beck vat de implicaties van de zogeheten Weltrisikogesellschaft in vijf punten samen, waarvan ik de relevante hier zal noemen. In de eerste plaats stelt hij dat individuele landen niet meer in staat zijn om hun problemen alleen op te lossen. De problemen overstijgen nu immers de nationale grenzen, en dat brengt ons bij Becks tweede punt: we zullen moeten samenwerken om deze problemen te kunnen oplossen. Daarnaast is het zo dat deze internationale samenwerking een uitdrukking, een bundeling is van nationale belangen. We kunnen dus voorlopig vaststellen dat er veel problemen zijn die buiten het bereik van individuele natiestaten liggen. Ook Jà ¼rgen Habermas stelde vast dat veel verschijnselen zich nog maar weinig aantrekken van nationale grenzen: â€Å"This broad â€Å"de-bordering† of economy, society, and culture thus touches upon the very existential presuppositions of a state system that had been constructed according to a territorial principle, and still comprises the most important collective actors on the political stage.† Cruciaal bij Habermas is echter dat hij stelt dat staten steeds verder verstrengeld raken in de interdependenties van de mondiale economie en samenleving, waardoor het autonome optreden van staten steeds meer wordt belemmerd en hun democratische gehalte in gevaar zou komen. Beck stelt dat â€Å"Globale Interdependenzrisiken machen den uneingeladenen, nicht-anwesenden Anderen zum Nachbarn, Mitbewohner, Stà ¶renfried in der Falle, zu der die Welt geworden ist. Anerkennte Risiken zwingen zum kommunikativen Brà ¼ckenbau, wo keine oder kaum Brà ¼cken existierenâ€Å" Groepen mensen die geconfronteerd worden met dezelfde risico’s zullen een soort verbondenheid met elkaar voelen, en uit deze verbondenheid kan vervolgens een poging voortkomen om de risico’s te minimaliseren. Met deze gedachte begrijpen we ook waarom Beck schrijft dat â€Å"Risikoà ¶ffentlichkeiten dis-aggregieren und re-aggregieren Demokratie. Sie wiederlegen das nationaalstaatliche Postulat, demzufolge Demokratie nur im Gesellschaftsbehlter des Nationalstaats mà ¶glich ist.â€Å" In het kielzog van de erkenning van risico’s kan dus ook democratie transnationaal worden en zo een antwoord vormen op â€Å"die Krise des rumlich bestimmten Machtsbegriff†¦.†Å" Ook na het achter ons laten van de natiestaat kunnen we volgens Beck democratisch blijven. Representatieve democratie behoort hier echter niet meer tot de mogelijkheden. Zelfs als het door Beck en Habermas geschetste toekomstbeeld correct zou zijn doet dat niets af aan de taak die de historicus van de politieke cultuur op zich heeft genomen. De expertise van deze soort historicus is gedurende tijden van crises, en dus ook gedurende de ‘crisis van het ruimtelijk bepaalde machtsbegrip’ immers van onvergelijkelijk groot belang om de aard van zulk soort crises te kunnen doorgronden en om oplossingen voor dergelijke crises te kunnen aandragen. Conclusie Wat is het nu dat de bestudering van de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur voor mij zo aantrekkelijk maakt? Volgens mij komt deze aantrekkingskracht voort uit de mogelijkheid om tot een combinatie te komen, waarin zowel de intellectuele geschiedenis (in dit geval de geschiedenis van de politieke filosofie) als de geschiedenis van de politieke praktijk, waarin op een creatieve wijze met de realiteiten van de economische, sociale, culturele en internationale wereld moet worden omgegaan, een rol spelen. Deze combinatie maakt het mogelijk om inzichten te verkrijgen in de psychologie van onze hedendaagse democratische systemen. Deze inzichten zijn niet alleen voor de discipline van de geschiedenis van de politieke cultuur van belang, maar, zoals we zagen, ook voor andere profielen. Zonder deze inzichten hebben deze profielen grote problemen om bepaalde verschijnselen in de eigen discipline te kunnen begrijpen. Bibliografie Ankersmit, F.R., Denken over geschiedenis. Een overzicht van moderne geschiedfilosofische opvattingen (Groningen 1986). , ‘Representational democracy. An aesthetic approach to conflict and compromise’ Common knowledge 8:1 (2002) 24-46. , Political representation (Stanford 2002). Beck, Ulrich, Was ist Globalisierung? (Frankfurt am Main 1998). , en Edgar Grande, Das kosmopolitische Europa (Frankfurt am Main 2004). Clausewitz, Carl von, On war ed. Michael Howard en Peter Paret (Londen 1993). Drukker, J.W., De revolutie die in haar eigen staart beet. Hoe de economische geschiedenis onze ideeà «n over economische groei veranderde (Utrecht 2003). Habermas, Jà ¼rgen, ‘Toward a cosmopolitan Europe’ Journal of democracy 14:4 (2003) 86-100. Manin, Bernard, ‘On legitimacy and political deliberation’ Political theory 15 (1987) 338-368. , ‘The metamorphoses of representative government’ Economy and society 23 (1994) 133-171. , The principles of representative government (Cambridge 1998). North, Douglass C., ‘Institutions’ Journal of economic perspectives 5:1 (1991) 97-112. Rehfeld, Andrew, ‘Book reviews’ Ethics 113 (2003) 865-868. Skinner, Quentin, ‘Meaning and understanding in the history of ideas’ History and theory 8 (1969) 3-53. 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Learning Journal on Motivating Others Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Learning Journal on Motivating Others - Essay Example This might be done through proper training to ensure that the individual has the required skills. The concept of motivation simply entails enhancing the desire and commitment to responsibilities as far as work is concerned in order to boost performance. In order to increase an individual’s performance through motivation, there is need to ensure that the individual gains proper understanding of performance expectations for the specific work. After making the person understand the performance expectations of the work, it is also important to ensure that the person feels that the expectations can be achieved. This can be done by first eliminating the existing personal and organizational obstacles to performance and making the person feel like he or she has the capability to achieve the expectations. There is also need to use appropriate rewards and discipline in order to encourage exceptional performance and extinguish unacceptable behavior. On identifying the specific inappropriate behavior, it is important to explain the reason why the behavior is considered as inappropriate and clearly indicate that the behavior should be stopped. Elaborate the impact of this kind of behavior on the performance of the individual and others i n terms of how it may hinder the achievement of the set performance expectations. By doing all the above, it will be a sure way of making the individual understand that high performance is more rewarding than average or low performance. In order to gain much from effective administration of the reward and discipline aspect, it is necessary to make the subordinate feel that the rewards gained from being a high performer are worth the effort. This means that the rewards are supposed to be substantial enough to increase the person’s urge to meet expectations so as to gain the rewards. This is also supposed to be done equitably so that the subordinates will not feel that there is any form of favoritism in one’s administration of